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Review of
Disasters in
Africa :
Professor . M.
Khogali.
Disaster
Management &
Refugees Studies
Institution ,
the
International
University of
Africa.
1.
Introduction :
Africa
faces many
disasters of
different types
and nature , but
Africa is not
the only
continent that
suffers from the
impacts of
disasters , many
of which are
common to other
parts of the
world . However
, there are
disasters that
are specific to
some continents
and are not
experienced in
Africa , or if
they are found
they are
restricted to
certain areas or
they are of low
strength. That
is because of
differences in
climate or in
the geological
structure , as
well as in the
different nature
of the human
activities . For
example
avalanches occur
in the cold and
high area of the
mid and high
latitudes and
they are very
rare in the high
lands of Africa
. Equally
volcanoes which
were common in
Africa during
the geological
times are
presently rare
except in few
areas such as
the high lands
of the Cameroon
. Forest fires
break out in any
area of dense
vegetation ,but
they are more
common to forest
areas of the mid
and high
latitudes where
trees are soft
and catch fires
easily .
1:2
Concept of
Disaster :
Disaster are
defined
differently ,
but the common
definition
includes the
following points
:
(a)
They are events
due to natural
or human causes
, and in many
cases the
natural
disasters are
aggravated by
the action of
man . The
negative impacts
of disasters are
often great and
fall beyond the
ability of the
local or
regional
communities to
mitigate them ,
and as such out
side help is
often sought.
(b)
Disasters could
be rapid or slow
in their
occurrence .
(c)
An events , such
as lighting
could only be
considered a
disaster if it
has negative
impacts on man ,
and as such
deserts have no
disasters . Thus
disasters are
measured by
their effects on
man , animals ,
and vegetation .
1:3 The world
awareness of the
seriousness of
disasters has
increased
because of the
following
factors :
(a) Increase in
the number of
disasters ,
especially
disasters of
human origin or
disasters that
are aggravated
by man
" action".
Examples are
desertification
and forest fires
.
(b) Increase of
human
populations in
areas that are
prone to
disasters ,
Turkey , Iran,
India and
Pakistan are
examples .
(c) Increase of
large Towns :
The annual
report of the
Red Cross and
the Red Crescent
,2004 stated
that between
1992 and 2000 ,
more than 7200
natural
disasters
occurred and
they led to
death's of more
than 200,000
persons , while
the material
losses , were
more than 800
billion dollars
. It may be
expected that
the negative
impacts increase
in the futures
as about half of
the world
population
reside in about
three percent of
the world
population areas
, and that one
in three cities
in the developed
world are
exposed to
natural
disasters.
1.4 The most
important
disasters that
are prone to
occur in parts
of Africa are as
follows :
-
Drought .
-
Desertification
.
-
Exceptionally
heavy rains .
-
Floods and
torrents .
-
Earthquakes .
-
Hurricanes .
-
Industrial
disasters .
-
Forest fires .
-
Human disasters.
-
Animal pests and
diseases .
-
Plant pests and
diseases .
-
Poverty .
-
Mal – nutrition
and famines .
Each of these
disasters would
be dealt with
separately .
2:
Drought :
2:1 Africa is a
continent
divided almost
equally by the
equator .
It
extends to about
latitude 35 in
the south and
to about
latitude 38 in
the north .
This gives
Africa the
following
climate
characteristics:-
(a)
Tropical and
semi – tropical
climates ,
(b)
Except in the
equatorial
region ,
rainfall is
seasonal and
decreases as one
moves away from
the equator ,
(c)
Extensive areas
are considered
permanently dry
in the sense
that evaporation
increases over
the total
average rainfall
, and the areas
that have annual
rainfall less
than 400 mm are
considered dry .
(d)
That all over
Africa rainfall
fluctuates from
one year to
another and even
from one month
to another
during the rainy
season .
(e)
That the
fluctuation in
the rainfall is
felt more
severely in the
drier parts
where the rain
is originally
marginal and
that a drop of
50 - 75 percent
or more of the
average annual
rainfall is
considered
drought disaster
. Extensive
areas such as in
Senegal , Mali ,
Burkina Faso ,
Chad , Central
Sudan , Zambia ,
Zimbabwe are
subjected to
frequent
droughts . Other
points about the
rain are that
the high heat
makes the small
amount less
useful to
grazing or
cultivation .
The same effect
is noticed when
the vegetation
cover has been
removed and the
rains run away
instead of being
absorbed by the
soil . It is
also noticed
that in some
years that at
the start of the
season rains may
be good and
that encourages
the farmers to
start seeding
and the plants
grow , but then
the rain stops
and the plants
wilt or die .
2.2 The factor
that determines
the amount of
the rainfall and
the
degree
of the
fluctuation is
the position of
the Inter-
Topical
convergence zone
(the belt
between the dry
air from the
desert and the
humid air from
the ocean ,
which in turn is
affected by the
distribution of
the pressure
systems ).
2.3 A drought
is considered a
disaster because
it means less
water is
available to
crop production
or grazing .
Fore example
Elobeid Region
in the Sudan has
an annual
average rain of
about 380-400mm
, but in 1984 it
received only
96mm which was
not sufficient
for cultivation
nor was it for
grazing .
2.4 In the
history of the
Sahailian
countries famous
disastrous
droughts
occurred in 1913
, 1973 , 1982 –
84 , 2004 and as
well as in other
periods .
2.5 The drought
maybe very
biting in the
following cases
:
(a) When
a number of
drought years
follow each
other , and in
that case the
grain storage of
the farmers
would be
depleted in the
second year and
famine may
results , or
people would be
forced to move
away to the
camps of the
displaced people
.
(b) When
the fertility of
the soil drops ,
crop production
would decrease
even if the rain
is normal .
2.6 In addition
to the negative
impacts on the
crop production
the farmers may
be forced to
horizontally
expand the
cultivated areas
to less fertile
areas to
compensate for
the low amount
of grains
received due to
drought .
Alternatively
the farmers may
be forced to
reduce the
fallow period
and cultivate
the land without
giving it a
chance to regain
its fertilely .
(c) Wild
life would be
reduced either
because the
farmers kill
them to obtain
food or they
migrate to other
areas where they
can find food
and water .
(d) The
farmers ,
without food or
money , resort
to other
activities that
include cutting
of trees to sell
wood or to make
charcoal , thus
contributing to
desertification
.
(e) Also
many people
would move to
towns or to
irrigated areas
along the Nile.
This contributes
to further
congestion of
towns and
separation of
families .
(g)
Repeated drought
reduces the
level of water
in the natural
lakes such as
lake Chad , or
in the lakes
behind dams .
This in turn
would adversity
affect the
areas under
cultivation .
3:
Exceptionally
Heavy Rainfall :
3.1 In some
years heavy
rains , vastly
more than the
normal , fall
over extensive
areas , in the
semi - desert or
even in the
desert. The
problems may not
be just the drop
in the total
amount , but
excessive amount
may fall in a
short period of
time and that
would be beyond
the ability of
the soil to
absorb it , and
the results
would include :-
(a)
houses built of
such materials
as clay or mud
bricks
would either be
totally or
partially
destroyed . This
was the case
several times in
rural Africa .
(b)
railways and
roads may be
washed away,
(c)
in areas where
the slope is
negligible ,
such as in the
clay plain of
eastern Sudan ,
the rain water
may cover wide
areas and stay
there for some
days , killing
the newly grown
crops . In that
case and after
the rains
evaporate the
farmers should
reseed . It
would not be a
practicable
solution to dig
ditches to drain
the water , as
that would be
expensive , and
the new channels
would need
bridges added
,expenses .No
part of Africa
is immune from
heavy rains ,
but the eastern
coast of Africa
, Madagascar and
Mozambique may
suffer from
repeated
hurricanes which
bring heavy
rains .
4:
Floods and
Torrents :
4.1 A flood is
a seasonable
rise in the
level of water
in the river
channels as a
result of heavy
rains . All the
rivers in Africa
, except the
equatorial
rivers where the
rains are
throughout the
year experiences
floods .
4.2 Floods
could be
categorized to
three types :-
(a) medium
floods as a
result of
average rain .In
that case the
rain water would
be confined to
the river
channels , and
would not cause
a disaster ,
(b) Low floods
as results of
low rainfall .
this may result
in a disaster
for countries
depending on
irrigated
agriculture as
water in the
river would not
be sufficient
for irrigation.
Also low areas
where the banks
of the rivers
are annually
covered by water
and be
cultivated ,
would be dry .
The history of
Egypt tells of
or many cases
when that
phenomena
occurred . Also
at the present ,
narrow stripes
of the Nile
that depend for
cultivation on
whether or not
the
" gerifs "
are flooded
suffer , the
same case with
river Senegal
and other rivers
,
(c) High floods
where water
could not be
confined in the
channels or to
the narrow low
areas adjacent
to the banks ,
but could also
spread over
extensive areas
, and thus
destroying
buildings and
other
proprieties ,
and cover grown
crops .
4:3 High floods
are not
restricted to
big river , but
may also happen
in some wadies
or small rivers.
A case in point
is river gash in
eastern Sudan .
It is a seasonal
river
originating from
Eritrea and
carries large
amount of silt
which has
already raised
the river bed .
The level of
water of high
flood is
currently above
the level of
Kassala town .
In 2003 a sudden
high flood
occurred and
large stretches
of the town was
drowned causing
huge losses in
properties
specially to
houses and fruit
gardens.
4.4 High level
of water in the
river channel is
a natural and
repeated
phenomena , but
flood disaster
is man made .
that is because
:-
(a) man removes
the vegetation
cover from areas
in the upper
reaches of the
water causes ,
and by doing so
greet amount of
water runs away
instead being
soaked into the
soil ,
(b) man builds
houses and other
buildings in the
lower areas that
are prone to
floods . Many
rivers in U.SA ,
for example used
to have high
disastrous
floods , but
remedial
measures were
taken : the
upper reaches
were reforested
, dams were
built to
regulate the
flow , and man
is no longer
allowed to build
houses in areas
that are exposed
to flooded .
Floods are
also famous in
the rivers of
China , India ,
Bangala Desh and
many other
countries .
However , China
started to
construct huge
dams to generate
hydro electric
power and to
regulate the
flow of water .
It could be
stated here that
rural people in
Western Sudan
and along the
western banks of
the white Nile
have the
traditions of
the building
houses on the
higher grounds ,
thus avoiding
the possibility
of floods.
4.5 Its
possible to
reduce the
danger of floods
by taking the
necessary steps
which include :
(a)
installing
gauging stations
at strategic
points to
measure the
level of the
water and the
amount of the
flow , and
convey to the
people in the
lower reaches
the possibility
of floods ,
(b)
neighbour
countries from
which rivers
originate and
cross the
political
boundaries
should co-
operate and
carry
information of
heavy rains and
the possibility
of floods to the
vulnerable
population .
(c) people
should not be
allowed to build
houses in low
areas near the
banks of the
rivers ,
(d) after the
highly
destructive
disaster of the
tsunami in the
Indian Ocean at
the end of 2003
,people became
aware of an
underwater
earthquake near
the east coast
of Africa . Thus
international
co- operation is
needed to
monitor and give
early warning to
the people along
the shores. It
could be stated
here that the
sea waves of the
tsunami of 2003
took seven hours
to reach Africa
. If there was a
system of early
warning a lot of
damage could
have been
avoided ,
(e) a giant
program of
reforestation in
the upper
reaches of
rivers such as
the Blue Nile or
the Niger would
not only reduce
the possibility
of floods but
would also
protect the
soils of the
upper reaches
from being
washed down .
5:
Desertification
:
5.1
desertification
is not the same
as desert .
A desert is
permanently a
dry land , has
no or very
scanty
vegetation , no
human population
except where
underground or
surface water
are found . On
the other hand
desertification
means the
occurrence of
conditions
similar to these
in the desert .
Further ,
decertified
areas usually
have some months
of rain ,
Desertification
is therefore due
to human
practices
through the
natural factors
may play a role
as well .
Desertification
is not a recent
phenomena , it
is old and is
due to the
irrational use
of the
agricultural and
grazing
resources and to
the continued of
wood cutting
from wide areas
.
Desertification
is therefore one
of the important
factor in the
deterioration
and the downfall
of some
civilizations
and town in the
Middle East ,
including the
Sudan .
5.2 In the
thirtieth of the
last century
professor
Stebbing of
Edinburgh
university
studied the
desertification
that occurred in
West Africa and
the Sudan , and
published a
number of
articles and a
book by the
title " The
encroachment of
the desert in
the Sudan and
elsewhere in
Africa , 1956 "
Stebbing
relying on
historical
evidence ,
stated that
during the
Eleventh Century
A.D extensive
areas extending
as for as
latitude 18n
(now desert
) were populated
and there were
considerable
economic
activities .
Stebbing
findings ,
however were
disputed by a
number of
scholars , thus
shelving the
question of
desertification
, but the
question came to
the glare with
the drought of
1969-73 and the
United Nations
called for the
UNEP conference
in 1977 on
desertification
.
5.3 the
question of
desertification
was always
linked to
drought , but
while drought is
a natural
phenomena
desertification
is very much the
result of human
activities .
When the land is
continually over
- cultivated
without the use
of natural or
artificial
fertilizer and
without giving
it a period of
rest , it looses
its fertility ,
its vegetation
cover , and it
becomes an easy
victim to wind
erosion .The
same factor is
observed in the
grazing areas .
Some scholars
kept advocating
that nomadism
does not cause
environmental
problems because
the livestock do
not graze in
one area , but
grazing is
rotational .
This idea proved
to incorrect in
a situation
where the number
of livestock
keeps increasing
all the time .
In such a case
an owner become
keen to rush his
animals to the
areas of the new
growth before
giving the plant
a chance to
complete its
cycle of growth
and lay the
seeds . In
addition , to
over cultivation
and overstocking
there is also
the over -
cutting of trees
to obtain wood
for domestic use
and for building
huts and houses
. In most the
African
countries over
80 per cent of
domestic energy
is derived from
wood .
5.4 In many
African
countries three
types of
desertification
are
observed :-
(a)
the removal of
the top soil .
This is
specially so in
elevated areas
where there is
slope , and
where the
vegetation cover
has been removed
. This is
clearly seen in
the Red Sea
Hills in the
Sudan , but it
is not very
clear in
Ethiopia as the
volcanic soil is
deep . The soils
from these
mountains
continued to be
removed for
thousands of
years ,
(b)
Sand
encroachment .
This is very
widely spread in
the Sahalian
countries of
West Africa ,
which are
adjacent to the
Sahara .It is a
problem also to
the internal
delta of the
Niger river as
well as to the
riveraine lands
of north Sudan .
The later region
is actually a
part of the
desert from the
climatic point
of view , but
the Nile
provides water
and good silty
soil .The sand ,
in many parts
buried the soil
and rendered it
useless for
cultivation .
(c)
The last type is
where the soils
have lost their
fertility
leading to
reduction in
crop yields . It
is observed that
with the loss of
fertility the
crop yields ,
continued to be
low even when
the rainfall
returns to
normal
5.5 The
outcome of
desertification
is similar to
those of the
drought :
(a)
displacement of
population on
large scales
with separation
of the family
members and
poverty as the
crop yields are
reduced and as
the nomads
loose their
livestock
through selling
at very reduced
prices , or
through death as
a result of poor
or no grazing .
6 :
Earthquakes
: -
6.1 volcanoes
are not common
in Africa during
the present
era.
Earthquakes do
occur in many
parts of Africa
, but
Except in
Morocco and
Algeria , the
earthquakes in
most parts of
Africa are weak
and do not , so
far cause great
damages .
Two earthquakes
occurred in
Egypt between
1990 –
2005
, and one in
Khartoum in 1993
. In all cases
the forces , be
it
in
Egypt or Sudan
was less than 5
on Richard scale
.
6.2 Yet no one
grantees that
serious
earthquakes
would not occur
in the Africa in
the futures .
Africa should
keep an open eye
to its eastern
coast as the
Indian Ocean has
experienced two
underwater
earthquakes in
2003 . Should an
earthquake takes
place in the
India Ocean near
the eastern
coast the damage
might be serious
. Further ,
recent studies
showed that
there is a
center for
earthquakes in
the area of the
White Nile near
Khartoum . If a
strong
earthquake
occurs during
the flood time
of that river
great damage to
Khartoum would
results .
7:
landslides :
7.1 These are
usually
associated the
earthquakes and
high areas . A
number of small
landslides took
place in the
area of Jebel
Mara in the
Sudan , and
these were
linked with the
earthquakes that
took place in
that area .
8:
Hurricanes :
8.1 Africa is
not famous for
violent
hurricanes as
these are
associated with
huge water
bodies in
eastern coast of
continents
between the
equator and
latitudes 30-35
. So only the
eastern part of
Africa that many
suffer
hurricanes . But
all the dry
lands of Africa
are famous for
the dust storms
which usually
cause some
discomfort but
no great damage
.
9:
Forest Fires
:
9.1 Fires could
breakout in all
areas where
there is dry
vegetation
covers . They
are usually
severe in the
forests of the
mid and high
latitudes where
there are dry
leaves and
broken branches
on the surface
of the land and
the trees are of
soft wood .
9.2 Dense
forest are rare
in Africa except
in the
equatorial and
semi equatorial
region . Most of
Africa is
savanna or
desert lands,
where trees are
not dense and
are made up of
hard wood . But
in the savanna
parts the space
between the
trees is covered
by grasses which
turn dry during
the dry season .
It is here that
fires breakout
after the rainy
season .
9.3 In the past
the colonial
authorities used
to order the
tribal people to
open fires lines
. This tradition
was neglected
when the African
countries became
independent .
That was mainly
because the
people were not
paid for their
work . The
results of the
fires could be
the burning of
about 30 percent
of the grazing
potentials.
10.
Conflicts and
Internal Wars
10.1
Conflict and
wars are the
work of the
humans , and as
such they are
very old.
10.2. The people
of the Africa
are composed of
large numbers of
tribes of
different
origins and
cultures .In the
past and as a
result of the
absence of
strong
governments many
of those kept
their tribal
identities.
Further , the
political and
administrative
boundaries did
not develop in
natural ways and
were the
creation of the
conflicting
powers. As a
result conflicts
between the
tribes kept
flaring up from
time to time.
But during the
foreign rule
peace and order
were forced on
the people to a
large extent.
10.3.
With
independence ,
however,
conflicts and
local wars began
to break out.
The cause for
these were many
and included
conflicts on the
use of the
resources
between the
settlers and the
nomads , as well
as because of
the unacceptance
of the rule of
certain factions
over the others
. Thus in 1954,
when it become
clear that the
Sudan gained its
independence a
mutiny of the
southern troops
broke out .
That lasted
till 1973. Again
it flared up in
1983, And
continued till
2005. In Nigeria
, after 4 years
from
independence the
Southern Eastern
part revolted
and formed the
short lived
state of
Byafara. Local
wars in Africa
are many and it
seems that they
will continue
for some times.
There are wars
in Somalia,
Rwanda, Burundi,
Uganda, Ethiopia
and Eritrea …..
and others.
10.4. No
solutions for
wars seems to be
in sight , but
these wars cause
the death of
many people ,
(civilians and
military) .
Further , wars
deplete the
financial
resources and
retard economic
development.
11. Thus
stopping the
local wars
should be one of
the challenges
to the African
Union , and it
is high time for
the African
people to
understand that
the various
problems can not
be solved by
wars, as in wars
no part of the
fighting
factions would
be a total
winner. Africans
should learn
from the
countries of
Western Europe
who fought among
them-selves two
world wars and
in the end they
started , since
1956 , when the
iron and steal
community was
formed ,to
establish bodies
for
co-operation
till in 2004 ,
when they
reached the
stage of
forming the
European Union ,
at first for the
countries of the
western part of
the Continent
but at the
present included
most of the
eastern parts as
well , over 50
member states.
12: Human
Diseases:
12.1
Africa gained
the reputation
of being a
continent of
many diseases,
and that thought
to have been one
of the important
reasons why its
interior
discovery was
delayed. Despite
the fact that
there has been
important
improvements in
the preventive
and curative
medicine,
diseases are
still widely
spread, and new
diseases such as
aids appeared .
12.2.
Among the famous
diseases in
Africa are :-
a.
Malaria.
b.
Tuberculosis.
c.
Typhoid.
d.
Dysentery.
e.
River blindness.
f.
Hepatitis, and.
g.
HIV (Aids).
12.3. Because of
the limited time
and space only
three of those
diseases are
discussed there.
The selection is
mainly because
of the
availability of
the data.
12.4.
Malaria:
This is a
dangerous
disease and it
is very widely
spread in all
the countries
of Africa, and
it is thought to
be the number
one
killer in the
Continent,
despite the fact
that it could be
cured it
discovered in
good time .
Nevertheless ,
It stays in the
blood and will
flare up if the
infected person
becomes very
weak for one
reason or
another.
12.5. The
data usually
revealed by the
government or by
WHO does not
show the whole
truth. That is
because many
people when
attacked by any
fever they think
that it is
malaria and they
go straight to
commercial
pharmacies and
buy anti-
malaria drugs.
So the number of
such diseased
persons does not
appear in the
statistics.
12.6
Malaria is
transmitted by
the mosquito
type Anopheles
gambia. Such
mosquitoes
spread in hot
climate where
fresh water is
stagnant. In the
past the season
for malaria was
usually the
rainy season.
However, this is
no longer the
case. The misuse
of fresh water
in the growing
urban centers ,
the digging of
irrigation
canals became
added factors in
the spread of
malaria
throughout the
year in many
African
countries. The
effective
combating of
malaria is
through the
draining of
stagnant water.
12.7.
Malaria does not
differentiate
between
individuals or
communities.
While the
wealthy families
combat
mosquitoes by
chemical
spraying (costly
operation), they
can not drain
the stagnant
water in the
canals and ponds
in the open
spaces and
streets. In
addition the
mosquitoes fly
and visit all
sectors of the
community. The
most affected
people by
malaria are
usually the old
people, children
and the aid
carriers. It is
among these
people the death
from malaria is
more common. It
is therefore the
duty of the
individuals, the
regional and the
central
governments as
well as the
international
concerned bodies
to try to
eradicate
malaria.
13. lung
Tuberculosis:
The virus of
this disease is
found in the air
all over the
world, but the
most vulnerable
persons are:-
a.
The underfed and
the
malnutritioned
persons.
b.
Weak persons.
c.
Those persons
living in crowed
lodgings and
working places
where the
ventilation is
weak , and in
camps of the
displaced people
.
13.2. The
T.B. situation
in Africa has
deteriorated
rapidly. At has
been reported
recently in the
Sudanese papers
(31/7/2005.)
that about
40,000 Sudanese
annually get the
disease and more
are excepted to
suffer. The
papers quoting
the WHO director
said that the
T.B. in the year
1995 killed 17
million persons
all over the
world and that
the T.B. cases
in the Africa
has tripled, and
that 22
countries in the
Continent are
seriously
affected by the
disease. However
, presently the
diseased persons
could be cured
if the disease
is discovered in
good time.
14. H.I.V.
(AIDS):
Table( I) ,
Countries With 5
Percent of The
Population in
The Age Group
15-49 Carry Who
The Virus Aids.
|
Region/
country
|
Percentage
in age
group15-49
|
Women
carriers
in the
age
group
15-49
|
Children
in the
group
from
zero to
14
years
of
age.
|
|
The
world
|
1,2
|
18,500,00 |
3,000,000
|
|
Africa
'south
of the
Sahara
|
9%
|
15,000,000
|
2,600,000
|
|
Namibia
|
22,5
|
110,000 |
30,000
|
|
Swaziland
|
33,44 |
89,000 |
14,000
|
|
Botswana
|
38,80
|
170,000 |
28,000
|
|
Zimbabwe
|
33,73
|
1,200,000 |
240,000 |
|
Lesotho
|
31 |
180,000
|
27,000
|
|
Kenya
|
15,01 |
1,400,000
|
220,000
|
|
Zambia
|
21,52
|
590,000
|
150,000
|
|
Rwanda
|
8,88
|
250,000
|
65,000
|
|
Malawi
|
15,0
|
440,000
|
65000
|
|
Central
Africa
|
12,90
|
130,000
|
25,000
|
|
Ethiopia
|
6,41
|
1,100,000
|
230,000 |
|
Mozambique
|
8 |
80,000 |
88,108
|
|
Burundi
|
8,30
|
190,000
|
55,000
|
|
Sierra
leon
|
7,00
|
9,000
|
16,000 |
|
Nigeria
|
5,8
|
1,700,000 |
270,000 |
Reference :
UNDP , Human
Development
Report , 2002 .
14.1. The
disease has been
discovered in
1983, and it is
transmitted from
one person to
another by ways
of:-
a.
Sexual contact
between the
virus carriers,
being of the
opposite sexes
or between gays
b.
Through
transmission of
diseased blood ,
even if is the
quantity is very
minute.
14.2
The disease
spreads among
all sections of
a society that
practice multi
sexual contacts.
Among the
disease carriers
are children
born to mothers
that carry the
disease during
pregnancy. It is
also regretted
that some
medical persons
might get the
virus during
taking blood
samples or
during surgical
operations.
14.3. Aid
is a very
dangerous
disease as it
can not be cured
though it can be
treated in the
some way as
diabetes and
usually the
result is death
.The death is
not because of
the virus it
self but it
makes the
infected person
very weak to the
point that the
body would not
be able to
resist any
disease. The
disease also
reduces the
vitality of the
infected persons
to the point of
putting them out
of productive
work . It has
been reported
that in Burkina
Faso about 20
percent of the
working
population are
disease carriers
, and many of
them are already
out of work. The
disease also had
the caused the
death of about
75 percent of
the police force
in Kenya.
14.4. As
the African
countries do not
have the
financial nor do
they have the
scientific
resources to
carry researches
in the field of
combating aid
, they rely on
work done in the
Western
countries, and
as it could be
seen from table1
that almost all
the African
countries suffer
from aids by one
way or another.
Also the table
shows the
African
countries where
the rate of
infection is
over 5 percent .
By comparison
the number of
the total aid
persons in
African is about
15,000,000 or
about 9 percent
of the total,
while in the
world the number
is 18,500,000
persons or about
1,2 percent of
the total
population. It
could be seen
from table that
the rates of
infection in
some countries
are alarmingly
high , more than
30 percent among
the age group
15-49. The rate
of women
diseased in
that age group
is also high .
If such women
become pregnants
they would give
birth to
diseased
children. In
addition the
already living
children and
carrying the
disease are
bound to die
before
reaching
maturity .
Further , many
of aid carriers
have vicious
tendencies , and
would like to
see as many
persons carrying
the disease as
they did so
themselves.
14.7.
This leads one
to think that
the population
situation in
Africa is rather
gloomy because:-
a.
The rate of
mortality had
already
increased in
countries where
the rate of aid
is high while
the mortality in
most of the
world is
declining. In
fact the death
rates in at
least three
Africa countries
have already
increased
between
1989-1990,
(table2).
Table 2 the
Mortality Rates
in Three African
Countries in
1989- 1990,
|
Country
|
Mortality
rate in
1987 per
thousands
|
1990
rates
per
thousands
|
|
Kenya
|
12,4
|
14
|
|
Rwanda
|
18,2
|
20 |
|
Republic
of South
Africa
|
10,2
|
12
|
b.
The fertility
rates will
decline, as many
of the disease
carriers would
tend to control
their births
lest the
children born
will be aid
carriers as
well. It
addition, the
increase of the
death rate among
children,
potential
parents , is
bound to have
its impact on
fertility
c.
Because of what
is happening in
the realm of
mortality and
fertility the
population
natural increase
rates would
drop.
d.
Also the rate of
economic
development
already low,
would decline
further.
14.8 .
Aids in Africa
is a real
disaster and
price of drugs
per one person
per year is
extremely high
by the African
standard of per
captor income
It is
therefore
important to put
together all
possible efforts
of the states
and world
organizations to
combat the
disease. If the
question of aid
is raised, many
persons would
think of the
solution in
terms of finding
anti - aid drugs
: Rarely we hear
of people
discussing the
core of the
problem:
resorting to
religious values
, abstaining
from multi-
illegal sexual
contacts.
15: Animal
Pests and
Diseases
15.1.
Africa possesses
large animal
wealth from
which the needs
of meat and milk
are met. Animal
export from one
region to
another in the
some country
.e.g. from
northern to
southern Nigeria
or to other
countries is
also observed.
15.2.
Animals in
Africa are
raised under
different
systems:
nomadic, semi
nomadic and
settled
conditions .
Also the animals
are of different
types and
breeds : There
are camels,
cattle sheep,
and goats.
Pigs are also
raised in the
non- Islamic
regions .
Climate has a
great role in
the selections
of the animal
type to be
raised.
15.3. As
Africa as
reputed for
human diseases
it is also
famous for the
animal pests and
disease. The
high heat and
humidity favour
the breeding of
pests and
diseases. Also
soils, dry or
wet have a part
in the spread of
there diseases.
When the soil
becomes muddy it
favours the
breeding and
spread of the
cattle biting
flies. This is
one reason for
the nomadic
movements from
clayey to sandi
soils as the
case is in the
Sudan, or to
higher ground as
the case is in
Nigeria.
15.4.
Since the first
quarter of the
twentieth
century same
efforts were
made to combat
animal diseases.
For example in
1927 a
veterinary
laboratory was
established in
the Sudan to
study animal
diseases and
produce vaccines
and drugs.
However, despite
the important
progress made in
that field ,
animal diseases
and insects
continue to kill
large number of
livestock or
hinder export to
outside
countries as
such countries
do not accept
diseased animals
or meat.
15.5. In
this section it
would not be
possible to
tackle all the
livestock
diseases and
pests ; enough
to discuss two
of these:
a.
The sleeping
sickness
(trypanosome)
and a Rinderpest
b.
The sleeping
sickness is
transmitted by
the tsetse flies
(trypanosome).
Other flies may
also transmit
the disease, but
they are not
important. The
disease attacks
both animals and
man. In the case
of man the
disease is
called nagana .
The fly is found
in very
extensive areas,
about 10 million
Km2 from the
equator to
latitudes 14…n
and south. The
best conditions
for the fly is
the savannah
environment
where the fly
find shelter in
bushes and under
the shade; and
in areas where
the annual
rainfall is
between 750- to
1500 mm. But the
fly likes
sparsely
populated
regions But
when it find
the chance to
spread, the
people evacute
the region . The
presence of the
fly in a region
makes it
unsuitable for
cattle and for
many other big
animals , raised
or wild , except
the zebra and
poultry.
15.6.
There are
two possible
ways to combat
the fly:
a.
To desert the
areas where the
flies are found,
or
b.
to chemically
spray the
infected areas.
But both methods
are harmful to
the matural
environment .
(b) Rinderpest
it is also
called the
plaque of the
livestock. The
disease was
known in Europe
till the middle
of the
Nineteenth
Century while it
was unknown in
Africa at that
time. It
disappeared from
Europe as a
result of
co-operation
between the
countries of the
Continent. The
movement of the
livestock across
the political
frontiers was
very much
restricted and
the infected
animals were
slaughtered.
15.7
The disease
came to Africa
at the end of
the Nineteenth
Century when the
Italians invaded
Eritrea. Soon
the disease was
transmitted to
the livestock in
Kenya, Uganda,
Malawi, Zambia
and Angola , and
then to West
Africa. But it
was noticed at
that time that
the killing of
antelopes
resulted in a
reduction of the
disease. After
the foundation
of the
Organization of
the Africa
Unity, some
countries, with
the support of
the Organization
developed a
scheme to combat
the disease and
that showed
some success.
But later there
was relaxation
and the disease
once more spread
in many of the
countries of the
Continent except
where rigid
control was
made. The
suggestion here
is that among
the first tasks
of the African
Union is once
more to support
and lead co-
operation
between the
countries to
combat the
disease.
16.
Plant Disease
and Pests.
These are many
as the heat and
humidity play
important roles
in their spread.
These Spread of
diseases and the
insects could be
attributed to
natural causes
as well as to
human
activities. Two
of these
diseases and
pests are
tackled here:
Desert locust
and be Buda (striga).
16.1.
Desert locust
It is an insect
that feeds on
the green leaves
of plants crops,
trees, bushes
and grasses ,
and has great
ability to fly
for long
distances from
Senegal to
Pakistan and
Afganistan ;
from North
Africa to
Central and
Southern
Africa. The
speed may be 30
km per day. It
has two seasons
for breeding:
the spring- in
the desert of
north Africa and
the dry winter
in the savannah
region. The
insect rests to
lay eggs during
period of
scarcity of food
. As the soil
gets some
humidity the
eggs hatch and
the insect start
to develop from
larva to full
grown insect.
There are fife
stages for that
development.
Then the insects
fly in huge-
swarms, may be
30 km in length.
The flying swarm
consume large
amount of green
leaves. One
insect consumes
about 1.5 grams
in a day. Thus,
a small swarm
covering an
area of one km2
could destroy
about 100 tons
of grains or
vegetation a
day. Even the
young larva
consume large
amout of food as
it has been
estimated that
one swarm could
consume about
equal the feed
of thousands of
human beings.
Thus the
invation of
locust is looked
upon as a real
disaster because
it may cause
severe shortage
of food or even
a famine. In the
Twentieths of
last Century
swarms of locust
used to cover
wide areas in
Africa. During
the Second World
War. and to
avoid possible
food shortages,
an international
organization for
combating the
locust was
founded and a
number of
treaties between
the countries
north of the
equate were
signed. The
methods of
combating was to
spray wide areas
by insecticides
during the first
stages of the
development of
the insect, but
before the
insect could
fly. If it
flies, combating
would be
different and
may cause
environmental
problems . Thus
combating locust
is difficult
because:
a. Chemical
spraying is
considered
harmful to the
physical and
human
environment.
b. Numerous
political
conflicts
between regions
in the same
country or
conflict
between
countries makes
the movements of
field workers
difficult.
c. In some
regions people
use locust as
food. If the
people, with-
out knowing ,
eat the sprayed
locust they
would suffer.
16.2 In
the early
Eightieth
of the last
Century and at
the time of the
great African
drought the
movements of
locust was few,
but as rains
resumed falling
in 1985 the
locust became
active once
more. Thus the
world public
opinion was not
ready to accept
shortage of food
caused by locust
, and as a
result FAO took
the responsibly
to co-ordinate
combating the
insect again.
16.3.
The phenomena of
locust was old.
The invasion of
locust was
mentioned in the
Quran as one of
the punishments
to the
disbelievers
pharaoh of Egypt.
It is also a
natural disaster
and man is not
responsible for
its occurrence ,
but man can
combat it. That
would not be the
work of one
region or one
country. It
needs the
co-operation of
all countries
where the
breeding takes
place . Thus ,
co-operation
should be a
joint venture
from both FAO
and the African
Union .
16.4. Buda (striga)
: It is a semi
parasitic plant
with rudimentary
roots that grow
with the growth
of some plant
crops especially
dura (sorghum).
In that way the
buda would share
with the plant
its food and
cause a
reduction of
about 30 percent
of the normal
crop production.
Despite the fact
that the buda is
a natural plant
its negative
impacts are
maximized by the
action of man.
That is because
man cultivates
the same type of
crop in the some
field season
after season and
without a
fallow system
and without crop
rotation. In
regions such as
the Gezira of
the Sudan the
effect of buda
is negligible as
crop rotation is
practiced
16.5. Inspite of
the negative
effected of the
buda , it is
considered a
good animal
fodder; but the
farm owners do
not allow
animals to graze
the crop
residuals after
harvesting .
This is because
the undigested
buda seeds would
come out with
the animal dung
and thus would
increase the
spread of the
parasite.
It would be
difficult to
fight buda
except by
following crop
relation and
fallow systems.
However, if this
system of
fighting is
accepted and
animals are
allowed to the
fields, that
would give the
soil good
natural manure
and crop
production would
increase.
17. Cotton
Disease and
Pests:
17.1.
Cotton is among
the plants that
are most
affected by
diseases and
insects. The
problems is very
much maximized
when cotton is
cultivated in
extensive areas
each year. The
Gezira scheme
for example,
where about
400,000 acres
are annually
under cotton is
much affected by
the various
cotton diseases
such as the
black arm, wilt
and leave curl
and others.
Among the usual
methods of
fighting are:
a.
Chemical
spraying ,
b.
breading of
resisting types
of cotton
c.
annually pulling
out the cotton
stalks and burn
them.
d.
follow a system
of crop
rotation.
However spraying
is a costly
process and it
has serious
impacts in the
environmental.
17.2.
Coco Trees:
The coco plant
was introduced
to West Africa
in the second
half of the
Nineteenth
Century. Its
cultivation
spread rapidly .
In Ghana the
total area under
culhvation in
the thirties of
the last century
reached about
7,5 million
acres. Thus the
coco trees
occupied about
50 percent of
Ghana's farm
land. But by
that time the
trees started to
be infected with
swollen shoot
disease. There
was no remedy
except to
destroy the
infected trees.
18.
Disasters of
Industries.
Industries
could be sources
of serious
disasters. A
glaring example
was what had
happened in
India when
poisonous gases
leaked from a
plant belonging
to the Union
Carboride and
killed over 2000
persons . Acid
rains could also
be produced when
poisonous gases
mix with rain
water . This is
not a problem
for local areas
, that is
because the
winds carry the
gases to far
distant areas .
for example
gases produced
in U.SA can be
carried to
areas as far as
Northern Canada
and Norway.
Growth of modern
industries in
Africa is still
in its infancy
stage . Further
, great
industrial
countries from
where gases are
omitted are far
away . Even so
some industrial
disasters did
occur in some
countries . For
example in 2004
fire broke out
in the thermal
electric plant
in Buri ,
Khartoum . Also
there is a lot
of criticism to
the iron and
steel factory at
Halwan
industrial
suburb in Cairo
, Egypt . Minute
particles of the
metal in the air
affect the
workers inside
the plants and
also the people
living in the
villages .
Criticism is
also directed to
cement and
tanning
factories in
many countries
.There are many
suggestions for
mitigating the
risk of the
industrial
incidents :
(a)
Feasibility of
development
projects should
include
environmental
components .
Usually the
owners of such
projects do not
like to include
any environment
reference in
their project
suggestions.
This is because
it costs them
money . This
should be
enforced by law
, otherwise the
health and
social costs
would be great
(b)
The question of
environmental
should go to
beyond polluting
air , water or
soil . It should
also include
what to do with
industrial
wastes even if
they not
poisonous. In
addition it
should include
how far some of
the wastes
could be
recycled.
(c)
Many of the
Western
industrial
companies seize
the opportunity
of the eagerness
of the African
to develop their
industries , and
establish
factories that
pay lip
services to the
environment .
This was what
had happened in
India . The
Indian plant
used rather
crude
technologies to
care for the
environmental
while the
prototype plant
in USA was using
very modern
technologies to
save guard the
environment .
Thus it should
be stressed here
that the African
countries should
be very cautious
when industries
are being
developed and
when Western
companies are
involved.
19:
Poverty :
19:1 poverty is
the most
serious disaster
in Africa. It is
very widely
spread , and it
is the base for
many other
disasters in the
Continent . It
was reported in
the Stockholm
Conference in
1972 that
poverty is the
most pollutant
for the
environment.
19:2 The first
criteria for
measuring
poverty is the
annual average
per capital
income. But
since there are
wide
discrepancies
between the
annual income of
the different
groups: between
the low , the
average and the
high , the per
capital income
is not a good
measure . it is
also thought
that the per
capita income in
some African
countries has
recently
declined . This
is because while
the production
of goods and
services has
remained static
or with little
increase, the
natural increase
the population
was
comparatively
very higher .
Thus many
authorities,
including the
United Nations
Agencies started
to use the
number of
dollars earned
daily per
person. Where
the income per
person is less
than one dollar
per day, the
country would be
classified as
poor , table(3)
. It is also
notices that
many Africans
don't reveal
information
about their per
capita income ,
but it is
generally a
agreed that
most of the
African
countries are
classified as
poor or very
poor .
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